Exam AP Gov

Using the written test form provided, respond to the prompts provided using your knowledge of American government and the links provided below:

English Bill of Rights:  http://avalon.law.yale.edu/17th_century/england.asp

Huntington's Theory:  http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/2144549/controversial_thesis_theory_of_hispaniztion.html?cat=75

Federalist 10: http://www.constitution.org/fed/federa10.htm

Federalist 51: http://www.constitution.org/fed/federa51.htm

Antifederalist 1 (Brutus): http://www.constitution.org/afp/brutus01.htm

Articles of Confederation: http://www.usconstitution.net/articles.html

Kentucky Resolutions: http://www.constitution.org/cons/kent1798.htm

Unalienable Rights

In the seventeenth century, philosopher John Locke wrote about natural law, which gives individuals rights that are part of the natural order of life rather than assigned by a ruler. Thomas Jefferson incorporated this concept into the Declaration of Independence in an attempt to point out the abuses made by the British government and prevent similar offenses from occurring in an independent America. Jefferson wrote that life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness were among the unalienable rights granted to all humans. The Constitution would go further to define and provide protection for these unalienable rights.
In Article I, Section 9 of the Constitution, several important unalienable rights are spelled out. The writ of habeas corpus prevents people from being held in custody without being charged with a crime. Ex post facto laws ensure that a person cannot be convicted of a crime if the action was performed before the action became illegal. Bill of attainder laws ensure that each citizen receives due process in the legal system and prevent Congress from passing laws that find someone guilty of a crime without a trial.
Article III, Sections 2 and 3 of the Constitution describe other unalienable rights. These sections state that the trials of crimes shall be by jury and the venue of trials shall be in the state where said crimes are to have been committed. They also address punishment for treason, stating that a person found guilty of treason can only be assigned punishment for the guilty person's lifetime, and that his or her punishment must not extend to his or her family. It also requires that two eyewitnesses prove the act of treason, an obligation that limits the number of treason trials.
Article IV, Section 2 contains the privileges and immunities clause, which states that "The Citizens of each State shall be entitled to all Privileges and Immunities of Citizens in the several States." Under this clause, states may draw "reasonable" distinctions between residents and non-residents. Actions that have been deemed reasonable include allowing separate in-state and out-of-state tuition levels for college and university students, setting minimum residency requirements for politicians running for office in a particular state, and taxing businesses owned by non-residents at a higher rate.
Conversely, some actions have been deemed as unreasonable distinctions under the privileges and immunities clause. For example, states cannot provide higher welfare benefits to long-term state residents than they provide to short-term residents, and they cannot encourage employers to give preference to in-state job candidates.
There have been some notable historic controversies over the interpretation of the privileges and immunities clause, and there continues to be confusion about it today. The Dred Scott Supreme Court decision seemed to contradict the clause because it determined that blacks were not entitled to the privileges and immunities of white citizens.
The Constitution, while a powerful and flexible document, must be periodically reviewed and amended to address issues that that did not exist, were not significant, or were not considered when Constitution was drafted. In fact, the Constitution was amended even before it was ratified by the states, when the Bill of Rights was added. Many states had adopted their own Bills of Rights, and before they were willing to ratify the Constitution, they required the inclusion of a federal Bill of Rights to outline specific limitations on the federal government.
The Federalists and Anti-Federalists disagreed over the inclusion of the Bill of Rights. Representing the Federalists, James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay wrote "The Federalist Papers," which opposed the inclusion of a Bill of Rights. They did not disapprove of the rights that would be protected under a federal Bill of Rights, but rather they felt the Constitution adequately limited governmental power and therefore the Bill of Rights was unnecessary. They also feared that any explicit list of rights would actually limit rights because it would appear that citizens had only those rights and no others.
However, Benjamin Franklin began exchanging a series of letters with Madison and eventually shifted Madison’s thinking. Also contributing to Madison’s change of heart was the realization that the Anti-Federalists would block the ratification of the Constitution without a federal Bill of Rights. With Franklin’s input, Madison began to favor not only a federal Bill of Rights, but also one with language even more specific than most of the states’ Bills of Rights. With Madison’s support, ten amended statements comprising the Bill of Rights were added to the Constitution, approved by Congress in 1789, and ratified by the states in 1791.

The Nature of Governments

Governments consist of the institutions that make and enact policies to govern people within a society or nation. The United States government is comprised of the executive, judicial, and legislative branches, as well as federal and state administrative agencies.

By making policies and carrying out those policies, a government fulfills several essential needs of a society. One is to protect citizens from foreign threats. Organizing armed forces, developing weapons, and making strategic alliances with other countries are three ways a government might try to protect its citizens.

A similar purpose of government is to maintain order in society by enforcing laws, preventing crime, and responding to emergency situations. In the United States, cities have a police force and fire department, and every state has a National Guard unit. These are just a few of the entities created to maintain order.

Regulating the economy is another important government function, since a strong economy is needed for growth and prosperity. To promote economic health, a government might lower taxes to encourage spending and put tariffs on imports to encourage people to buy products made in their own country. The Federal Reserve, or the Fed, is one government agency that plays a major role in regulating the U.S. economy. In addition to setting interest rates, it implements U.S. monetary policy and makes sure banks are honest and fair in their dealings with consumers.

A government also has a duty to provide public goods and services for its citizens. Examples of public goods include schools, highways, and libraries. Typically, public goods are available to everyone, and it is illegal to exclude people from their use. Medicare, federal education loans, and welfare are all public services. These services are available to people who qualify for them based on need.

Socializing young people is the fifth purpose of government. The goal of socialization is to encourage youths to accept, understand, and perpetuate the government. In the United States, many children begin their school day by reciting the Pledge of Allegiance, and the curricula for most schools require students to take U.S. government. Some citizens argue that these socialization methods are tantamount to brainwashing. However, in order for a government to function effectively, children and young adults need to know how their government works and how they can participate in it.

Protecting citizens, maintaining order, regulating the economy, providing public goods and services, socializing the nation's youth—these are huge undertakings, and a government needs billions of dollars to make them happen. To raise this money, both federal and state governments must fulfill a sixth purpose: levying taxes. The Internal Revenue Service (IRS) and United States Treasury operate the federal tax system, making sure individuals and companies pay their taxes according to the law. Each state has a treasury department to operate its tax system. Although federal taxes are applicable in all states, not all states have the same taxes. For example, Kansas has a state income tax, but Florida does not.

The area in which a national government operates is a called nation state. Four characteristics mark the existence of a nation state: territory, population, sovereignty, and legitimate government. A nation state's territory must have defined borders that are recognized by other nations. The size of the territory varies. Some nation states are very small, such as Monaco, which covers approximately one square mile. Others are much larger, such as Russia, spanning more than 6 million square miles, and the United States, covering close to 3.8 million square miles.

A people can have a government but lack an independent territory to make it legitimate. This is the case today with the Palestinian people in the West Bank and Gaza, the Kurds in Northern Iraq, and the Basques in Spain among others. As populations grow within the inhabitable places of earth, it is inevitable that there will be more conflict over territory.

In a nation state, the population can be large or small, and it typically shares a common culture. However, as in the United States, the people do not have to come from the same ethnic background or speak the same language. Nations having a diverse population need a government that can help lead the people to compromise and reach consensus on social, political, and economic issues. Without cohesion, the population becomes divided and difficult to govern. Nations with a high level of homogeneity tend to find compromise and cohesion easier.   Japan, France, and England are prime examples. Some African nations with diverse tribal populations find consensus much more difficult and struggle to maintain legitimate governments.

To be sovereign, a nation state must have the authority to govern its territory and population without interference from other nations. This authority also includes determining domestic and international policies. The colonies in America during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries are examples of people who had territory but not sovereignty. These colonies were protectorates governed by England. Several protectorates exist throughout the world today, including Puerto Rico, which is a protectorate of the United States. Many peoples believe that they should be given sovereignty from national powers that have traditionally ruled them. The Basques in Spain are an example of a people that have a regional government but desire the sovereignty to exist as an independent nation. To this end, separatists have resorted to extreme means to achieve independence.

For a nation state's government to qualify as legitimate, its population and other nations must recognize its authority. The government must respect the rights of individuals and allow some degree of popular sovereignty, so individuals can participate in their governance. Some governments are not considered legitimate because of how they came to exist and how they operate—in other words, for diplomatic reasons. For example, from the late 1940s to the mid-1970s, the United States recognized the non-communist Taiwanese government as the official government of China. The United Nations decided in the early 1970s that the People's Republic of China, a communist-led government, was instead the legitimate authority. In 1979, President Jimmy Carter changed the United State's foreign policy to agree with the U.N. by recognizing the People's Republic of China as the legitimate government.

Another government not recognized as legitimate is the military rule in Myanmar, which overthrew the former regime. The pro-democracy movement in that nation does not recognize the authority of the military rule. In turn, free nations in the world are pushing for free elections and a return to democracy for the former Burma. 

Whether or not governments are considered legitimate, they can be identified by who holds power and who can participate. Five types of government can be found throughout history and in present times. One type is the dictatorship, in which one person controls the government. The general population has little or no political participation, and their rights are restricted. Two infamous dictators were Adolf Hitler in Germany and Pol Pot in Cambodia.

Similar to dictatorships, oligarchies, sometimes called dictatorship of the party, allow limited participation in government and grant people few rights. Instead of power being held by only one person, it is shared among an exclusive group. Before his removal from power, Saddam Hussein and the Baath Party in Iraq functioned as an oligarchy.

A third type of government is a monarchy, in which one person has control. This person's power is claimed from "divine rights" and is passed from one generation of the royal class to the next. Historically, people ruled by a monarch did not have rights, and they were at the mercy of the monarch's will. This form of government existed in England before the signing of the Magna Carta.

In a representative monarchy, the monarch is more of a figurehead than a dictator. Under this type of governance, people have political and civil rights and can participate in parliamentary government. Representative monarchies, such as Denmark, Great Britain, Spain, and Japan, are democracies that evolved out of the feudal systems.

A democracy is a fifth type of government and derives its power from the people it governs. For this reason, the people can influence not only who holds office but also what policies are implemented. Democracies exist throughout the world, but no two democratic governments are exactly alike. For example, the Parliamentary system of the United Kingdom and the Presidential system used by the United States are quite different in their organization, where the seat of power is located, and in their traditions, and yet both are democratic governments.

There are two main types of democracies. The first and oldest is a pure, or direct democracy. In a pure democracy, the people being governed gather to discuss and vote directly on decisions made by the government. This style of democracy was used by the ancient Athenians and is still used today by a few small communities in New England.

The other type is a representative, or indirect democracy. In this system, the people elect representatives to run the government and express their sentiments. The power in this type of democracy remains with the people. State governments are examples of representative democracies in that elected officials act on behalf of their constituents. For example in different state governments, people retain power via initiatives, referendums, and recalls. However, the U.S. National Government is a republic, meaning that the power rests with elected officials rather than with the people.

Defining Federalism

The United States encompasses many governments—over 83,000 separate units. These include municipal, county, regional, state, and federal governments as well as school districts and special districts like water and land conservation.
Federalism is a system in which two or more governments share power over the same constituents. Ultimate political authority, or sovereignty, is shared between the governments. The national government is supreme and holds powers on certain issues, and the state governments have the same sovereignty over different issues. The workings of the federal system and how national, state, and local governments relate is described as intergovernmental relations.
The concept of federalism was created when the Framers began to develop the Constitution of the United States. This form of government was derived as a compromise of power between the states and the federal government. The goal of federalism is to preserve personal liberty by separating the powers of the government so that one government or group may not dominate all powers. The Framers believed that divided power was limited power and applied this theory as they created the Constitution. This form of government is unique because instead of the national government receiving its powers from the states, or the states receiving powers from the national government, both governments derive their powers directly from the people, or constituents. It is a system of government for the people, by the people.
The Anti-Federalists were those opposed to ratifying the Constitution. They questioned the proposed power of the strong national government and pointed out the dangers of tyranny and threats to the rights and liberties that they had recently won from England. They also questioned the motives of the Founders, claiming the Constitution was class-based, ensuring the elite class held the powers of the nation. Charles Beard, in An Economic Interpretation of the Constitution (1913), maintains that the Constitution was designed to protect the propertied classes and that economic gain was the founding fathers' prime motivator.
James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay wrote the "The Federalist Papers" as political theory in defense of the Constitution and federalism. These documents allow us a glimpse into how the Framers felt the system would operate. In Federalist #16, Alexander Hamilton argues that the national government is necessary to keep the states in harmony. He maintains that the national government should be at least equal in power to the states.
In Federalist #17, Hamilton argues that the states will always have the allegiance of the people; that people will be loyal to the body of government closest in proximity to them. Since criminal and civil justice will be the tool of the states, the people will remain obedient to the states.


James Madison contends in Federalist #39 that the Constitution is an unbiased document, as it calls for a balance of power between the state and national governments. He goes on to argue that the states are the creators of the federal government, and that because the ratification process is achieved through the states, the states are given the ability to stand independent of the federal body. Madison believed that because the federal system is a republic, and the Constitution enumerates powers to each layer of government, the new system would be superior to any other form of government.
Dual federalism describes a certain form of federalism where the national government and state governments have distinct realms of authority that do not overlap and into which the other should not intrude. Some equality of the governments is implied, with the federal government acting as the means to link the states. Dual federalism is often described as "layer cake federalism," which indicates distinct layers of government, each with their own sphere of influence. The icing on the cake (the federal government) binds the layers (the states) but also separates them.
A key feature of federalism is decentralized politics. For example, elections are conducted at the state level—even national elections such as the presidential election—allowing governing power to rest in the hands of more people. Therefore, more points of access to the government exist for its constituents. Federalism also strengthens judicial power. Because power is shared between the state and national governments, inevitably there are disputes between the two that must be arbitrated by the judicial system.
Policy decisions are decentralized in a federalist government. Policies dealing with education, labor laws, and highways are just a few examples of issues that are discussed at both the national and the state level. Public policies concerning the environment, equality, and the economy all require the centralizing power of the national government and the dispersing power of the states. While policy decisions happen at all levels, states tend to direct policies dealing with social, moral, and family topics. Most often, the states are the inventors of new policies, which stem from the needs and desires of their local constituencies.
Alternatives to federalism include unitary governments and confederations. A unitary government occurs when one centralized body is the sole governing unit. Unitary governments are often found in small, compact nations with homogeneous populations and few factional elements. Japan, France, and Great Britain, prior to an independent parliament and home rule for Scotland, are examples of unitary governments.
Confederations, such as the pre-Constitutional United States, are loose central governments that are dominated by the stronger state governments. Under the Articles of Confederation, the states were bound to the national government through a "friendly alliance." Confederations are rare in the world today. Switzerland calls itself a confederation, but it operates much like a federal system. Recently, growing cooperation between countries in the current European community has resulted in a confederation called the European Union. After the break up of the Soviet Union, Russian states discussed forming a confederation, but the plan did not survive due to the unrest that followed. Another example of a confederation was the Confederate States of America, which was formed by some southern states during the Civil War.

Cooperative Federalism

Federalism incorporates multiple layers of government, where final authority is divided between the layers of government. Dual federalism can be described using the metaphor of a layer cake, where the layers of government are linked, but function as distinct units. Cooperative federalism evolved from the concept of dual federalism. Cooperative federalism is often described using a marble cake metaphor, where the layers of government are less distinct and share responsibilities and policies. In this model, citizens are considered more than inhabitants of a state within a nation, they are considered citizens of both the state and the national governments. The role of the national government is more prominent in cooperative federalism than in dual federalism. With the dual federalism model, the national government and the state governments collaborate by sharing costs of programs and by sharing administrative roles, while implementing federal policies.
With the New Deal legislation that followed the stock market crash of 1929, the federal government grew in order to implement programs to boost the economy and end the Great Depression. As the federal government grew, the nation moved from the model of dual federalism to cooperative federalism. Through judicial interpretation, incorporation of the due process and equal protection clauses of the Fourteenth Amendment shifted the precedent toward national supervision of the states.

English Documents and Democracy

Democracy largely had its origins in Great Britain, where people grew tired of life under monarchical rule. Although not all monarchs were tyrants, many of them were greedy and ruthless, taxing their people heavily and punishing them harshly, sometimes without cause. Not surprisingly, the people longed for more control over their lives.

At Runnymede, England, in 1215, after years of exorbitant taxation and bloody foreign wars, English barons took a stand against King John. They drew up the Magna Carta, which outlined restrictions on the king's power and granted certain rights to the barons. For example, it provided that the king could not jail or execute people without due process, and he could not arbitrarily seize their money or property.

The Magna Carta marks two significant steps toward democracy:

  * It challenged the idea that monarchs had absolute power.

  * It gave people rights.

The monarchs who succeeded King John did not always abide by the rules set forth in the Magna Carta. Fortunately for the English people, Parliament gradually gained power and influence. More than 400 years after the Magna Carta was signed, members of Parliament challenged King Charles I. In 1628, they rejected his request to increase taxes and withheld their consent until he agreed to sign the Petition of Right. This document barred the king from such acts as arresting or punishing people without cause and forcing people to let soldiers to stay in their homes.

The Petition of Right was another milestone in the development of democracy. As with the Magna Carta, it diverged from the idea that God appointed kings, giving them a "divine right" of absolute power. People began to adopt the conviction that a king's power was not God-given, leading them to feel that they could reduce the king's rights and expand their own. The Petition of Right also insisted that monarchs are subject to the same laws as everyone else and have to answer for their crimes.

Despite Parliament's efforts, English monarchs continued to misuse their power. In 1689, Parliament tried once again to end the abuses with the English Bill of Rights. William and Mary of Orange had been approached by Parliament about becoming the new English monarchs. As a condition of their succession, they had to sign this Bill of Rights.

Parliament had previously established that monarchs could not levy taxes without its approval. The English Bill of Rights extended the list of actions requiring Parliamentary approval. Under the provisions of the Bill, the monarchs could not keep a standing army during peacetime and could not change or abolish laws. The Bill also provided that people had the right to petition the king without fear of reprisal and the right to a fair trial.

Although modern-day Great Britain has a monarch and no written constitution, its government is parliamentary. It operates not as a monarchy but as a democracy built upon the Magna Carta, Petition of Right, and English Bill of Rights. Each of these documents helped shape democracy in Great Britain and throughout the world. Today, many of the laws and rights established by these documents can be found in the United States Constitution and in the constitutions of other countries.

28th Amendment

Although amending the Constitution is a difficult process that rarely succeeds, there have been recent efforts to make changes regarding such issues as balancing the budget to defining marriage to protecting the flag.  You will write a proposal for a 28th amendment that addresses an issue that is important to you.You will then list the organizations or interest groups that would be in favor of your proposal as well as any groups that would be opposed.  Finally you will explain the pathway you have chosen to push your amendment through. The choices are as follows:

1. Congress may require ratification by special convention.

2. Two-thirds of the state legislatures may apply to Congress for a constitutional convention to consider amendments, which are then sent to the states for approval.

3. The new amendment may be approved by two-thirds of both houses of Congress, then sent to the states for approval

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Please place all information in the comments section of this posting.

Finally, each amendment will be put up for vote by the class next week to see which one merit being added to our Constitution.

Articles of Confederation Notes

Even prior to the Revolutionary War, American colonial leaders discussed how they could organize a unified government. In 1754, the English Board of Trade, the organ of the British government responsible for the colonies, called for a meeting of representatives of all British colonies and six allied Native American nations to develop a plan to defend their land from the French during the French and Indian War. Benjamin Franklin, one of the congress delegates, proposed the Albany Plan of Union. Franklin's proposal called for an annual congress of delegates from the 13 colonies with the authority to organize military forces, regulate trade, and collect taxes and customs duties. While the delegates attending the meeting supported the Plan, not a single colonial assembly would ratify it, and the British refused to endorse the proposal. Even though it did not win approval, the Albany Plan laid the groundwork for the republic that would eventually become the United States of America.
During the Revolutionary War, the Continental Congress created the Articles of Confederation as a format for a united government. The Articles were influenced by the Iroquois Confederacy, a league of independent Iroquois tribes that united to create a common defense against their Huron enemies. The Iroquois Confederacy was so successful that it lasted more than 200 years.
The 13 Articles of Confederation created a model for what later became the United States Government by establishing a "league of friendship and perpetual union" among the states.
The Articles of Confederation linked the 13 states together to deal with common problems, but in practice they did little more than provide a legal basis for the limited authority that the Continental Congress was already exercising. The national government still had no courts, no power to levy taxes, no power to regulate commerce, no power to conscript an army, and no power to enforce its resolutions upon the states or individuals. Each state had a single vote regardless of population. A vote from nine states was required to approve bills dealing with war, treaties, coinage, finances, or the military, while amendments to the Articles themselves required unanimous ratification. In whatever areas the Congress held authority, it had no way of enforcing the powers it did have.
The limited authority the Articles granted the central government caused a variety of problems for the emerging nation. The inability to levy taxes led to funding shortages when the states refused the central government's request for additional funds. The money problems led the government to sell off land to raise capital and to print devalued currency. The central government's inability to regulate commerce resulted in economic rivalries between the states, which were manifested in disputes over currency and protective tariffs. The absence of executive authority also left the government powerless to deal with economic disputes and territorial conflicts, which led to civil unrest.
In 1786, economic strife resulted in a citizen uprising in Massachusetts. After the state legislature refused to provide relief to debt-stricken farmers, an armed mob stopped foreclosures by forcibly preventing the courts from holding their sessions. Under the leadership of Daniel Shays, a farmer and former army captain, a group of nearly 1,200 disgruntled farmers marched to the federal arsenal at Springfield. Although the uprising—known as Shays's Rebellion—was quickly quashed, the Massachusetts legislature did approve some of the rebels' demands for debt relief in its next session. News of the "rebellion" spread quickly. The rebellion, along with the national government's inability to draft an army, provided ample evidence of the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation.
Despite its weaknesses, the Articles did function as a wartime government, allowing the colonies to win the Revolutionary War. By creating a United States, the Articles gave the colonies a national identity for the first time. The Articles also allowed Congress to pass a landmark document known as the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, which encouraged development of the area that eventually became the states of Ohio, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, and Wisconsin. The Northwest Ordinance established a method for new state creation, outlawed slavery in the territory, and set aside land for education.

Homework

Wednesday, 11/30:  You should have read TB Chapters 14-16

Monday, 11/21: Read Lanahan 74 and 75

Friday, 11/18: Vocab Activity 11

Hispanization

Read The Huntington Theory of Hispanization (pages 22-23 in the textbook) and in the comments section below answer questions 1 and 2. Due Monday, 9/12

Below are two additional articles that also discuss the issue that you might want to read to help formulate your response.

http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/2144549/controversial_thesis_theory_of_hispaniztion.html?cat=75

http://americanaejournal.hu/vol3no1/szabo

Syllabus

Overview

This course is designed to examine the institutions, participants, and processes which characterize political activity in the United States. The course has three objectives:

1.to introduce students to the basics of American national government,

2.to help students develop an analytical perspective toward the conduct of politics in the United States, and

3.to introduce students to the manner in which political scientists conduct research on the political process.

Units

Part One: The Constitution

1.General overview- The Nature of Politics and Government in the United States

2.The United States Constitution

Part Two: The Participants in American Politics

1.Public Opinion and Political Participation in the United States

2.The Role of Interest Groups in American Politics

3.The Role of Political Parties in American Politics

4.Campaigns and Elections

Part Three: Political Institutions

1.The United States Congress

2.The Presidency

3.Congress vs. The Presidency

4.The Supreme Court and the Federal Court System

Grading Criteria:

Papers, Projects -                               30 %

Quizzes/Tests -                                   10/35%

Homework/Class work -                    10 %

Participation                                       15 %

Class Expectations:

·        School rules apply within the classroom.  This applies to such things as food and drink, cell phones, dress code, and cheating.  If there are any questions about the policies of the school, please consult the student handbook or see me.

·        Make up work due to absences are due the day of return unless otherwise noted by me.  You are responsible for collecting any assignments that were handed out during your absence upon your return to school.

·        Students missing a test due to an excused absence must make up the test after school on the day they return to school.  Make-up exams may be in essay format and may be more challenging than the original exam.  Students missing tests due to an unexcused absence may be ineligible to make up the exam.

·        Late work will be given up to 50% credit if turned in the next class period after it is due.  Any assignments turned in after this period will be graded but not given credit.

·        Hall passes are for emergencies only.  Please use the restroom before or after class.  Visits to other teachers, guidance, the cafeteria, the gym, etc are not allowed during class.

·        If there are ever any concerns, suggestions, problems, or need of extra help, I am more than happy to meet with you.  I am available after school on Mondays and Wednesdays, or any other time by appointment.

Voter Statistic Sites

http://elections.gmu.edu/voter_turnout.htm

http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/socdemo/voting/index.html

http://www.esri.com/industries/elections/business/demographics.html

http://democracysouth.org/vcmwp/?p=53